Dependency: A Latin American View
F., Antonio Murga
Middle class politicians since 1930, and social scientists wnrkina minlv with ECLA (U.N. Economic Commission for Latin America) since 1950, have argued and continue to argue that the dynamic base...
...This policy lacked any plan for industrialization based on the diversification of the industrial sector and its transformation into the dynamic sector of the economy...
...A. Quijano, El marco estructural condicionante de los problemas de participacion social en America Latina, Santiago (mimeo), 1969, p. 1 1 . 40...
...2 9 The economically, socially, politically, culturally and ideologically dependent character of this middle class (and also of the industrial bourgeoisie) was manifested roughly since the beginning of the economic crisis of the export system and since that time when sectors not a part of the traditional bourgeoisie were excluded from participation in the political system (i.e., at the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the Frst World War...
...the most important exporting zones (the areas richest in minerals) wer immediately linked with the Spanish "metropolis...
...ex-Secretary of Defense and now president of the World Bank, pointed out...
...The "hacienda" system and the social relations tinged with "senorialismo" - inherited from the colonial period but still existing in many regions - were strengthened...
...Such relations are produced on a dual level in which the dominant country determines and/ or conditions the internal structure of the peripheral countries in accordance with its own expansive interests...
...The formation of this underdeveloped and overexploited colonial structure is, therefore, the basic obstacle which has impeded the development of the peripheral societies...
...10 for institutions...
...The analysis of Latin American underdevelopment therefore consists of the study of underdevelopment within the framework of its own historical experience, in its own specific reality and in the concrete historical conditions in which it is produced, which are those of world capitalism...
...This means that a smaller number of incorporated businesses tend to control a growing segment of decision-making in the economic process...
...The Latin American bourgeoisie, oriented commercially toward the metropolis, and their national allies in mining and agriculture, opposed this autonomous capitalist development...
...From the historical-structural point of view, the political behavior of the popular classes in a situation of political crisis depends on the circumstances in which these classes were formed, i.e., the conditions of dependent capitalist development...
...2 4 Thus, the so-called Latin American independence "...was, to a great extent, part of the process of transformation of the system of production and marketing of capitalism, a process within which and for which intermetropolitan displacements of power were produced and, consequently, alterations in the system of relations of dependency...
...cit., p. 23...
...Thus, there is no unified class capable of controlling power and, beginning with its own interests, determining the organization of the State or of the society...
...Universitaria, 1969, p. 106...
...This section is based on the work of F.C...
...Second, the dependent condition of the popular classes limited their radius of political action to achieve power...
...It is an economic, social, political, ideological, military and cultural phenomenon, that is to say, a phenomenon which includes the entire institutional framework of the dependent society...
...Second, there was a widening of the social bases of power - a redefinition of the landed oligarchy, the industrial bourgeoisie, the middle class and the popular classes...
...The recuperation of the metropolis and the renewal of its penetration of Latin America occurred early in the 1950's...
...From this point of view, one author has clearly pointed out that the history of Latin American underdevelopment is the history of the development of the world capitalist system...
...We will try to characterize it, although briefly, in the following pages...
...4 The Depression of 1929 therefore posed a serious dilemma for the Latin American economies: they had either to resign themselves to the Depression and enter a process of stagnation with corresponding socio-political dangers, or to look for a new alternative in industrialization and thus generate income and satisfy the created demand...
...Autonomous development occurs as a result of historical circumstances and is a process outside of the consciousness and will of any class...
...This "critical juncture" gave rise to the conditions for change in the development process owing to the collapse of the external sector, the dynamic pole of the agro-exporting economy...
...In effect, populism, by integrating the popular urban classes into the political system, temporarily drained them of their revolutionary potential...
...Along with its essentially urban character...
...in other words, there exists a relationship of total interdependence 16...
...The petit bourgeoisie, broken by big capital, becomes a mass of simple salaried personnel appendaged to the ruling class...
...Reyna, Industrializacion, estructura ocupacional y estratificacion social en America Latina, Santiago, ILPES, 1967, (mimeo...
...In summary, the agrarian crisis and industrial development have brought our countries to an accelerated process of urbanization which tends to be concentrated in the zones of greatest industrial development...
...influence more evident -strengthens the unfair price system...
...Weffort, op...
...The result is a high percentage of unemployment -- the first characteristic of the new industrialization...
...Two basic trends arose from this condition...
...To this we can add the failure of many imperialist plans such as the Alliance for Progress, economic integration, the policy of international cooperation and the interdependence between Latin America and the United States...
...16-2 nation of the "feudal sector" of the society (represented by the latifundio and the oligarchic agrarian classes...
...Box 57, Cathedral Park Station, New York, N.Y...
...205-6...
...From this the socialist society will emerge.- 13 - FOOTNOTES 1. R. Prebisch, "Problemas teoricos y practices del crecimiento economico," in A. Bianchi, America Latina: ensayos de interpretacion economica, Santiago de Chile, Ed...
...With the paralysis of foreign trade, the lack of imported consumer goods in the domestic market, the sudden collapse in import capacity, the contraction of the exporting sector and its low level of profits -the obstruction of international finance profoundly modified the evolutionary process of our economies, 3 0 The economies were forced to develop so-called import substitutions...
...National development occurs when a national class, conscious of itself and its historical role, plans for development...
...The military aid which has increased tremendously since 1960, is the clearest aspect of the militarization of power in Latin America...
...On the other hand, a reaccomodation takes place in the dependent ruling class from the moment that multinational business begins to control the peripheral economy...
...Its study is indispensable for those who want to understand the situation that presently confronts this system and the perspectives that it opens...
...T. Dos Santos, E1 nuevo caracter de la dependencia, Lima, Moncloa Eds., 1969, p. 36...
...Marini, Subdesarrollo y Revolucion, Mexico, Siglo XXI, 1969, p.3...
...The landed oligarchy had no other alternative but to share its control and political leadership with the other classes...
...Cited in J. Petras, "Revolution and Guerrilla Movements in Latin America," in J. Petras, and M. Zeitlin, op...
...While the countries on the Atlantic coast were linked more dynamically and directly to the new metropolis (England), thus managing to put into motion their agricultural-extractive capitalist development, the Andean and Central American countries entered into a process of economic stagnation, political chaos, and complete agrarianization...
...Development appears ever more remote while exploitation is ever increasing...
...3 9 This process has brought into dominance the new urban-industrial sectors although it does not negate the importance of the agrarian-extractive sector, which still constitutes the principal center of ties with the outside, and consequently, is the principal source of foreign exchange...
...Thus, there remains for them no other alternative beyond the activities related to the service sector or to the state, functions which are ultimately dependent upon the vicissitudes which an economy of this type must undergo...
...See A.G...
...Cardoso and E. Falletto, Dependencia y Desarrollo en America Latina, Mexico, Siglo XXI, 1969, p. 18...
...1 9 Latin America became incorporated into the capitalist system as it was being formed...
...Instead of growing stronger, these economies became even more vulnerable and dependent on the metropolitan economy...
...This is the real reason why our own process of development has been made more dependent, vulnerable and unstable...
...Frank, op...
...At their height, the agricultural-extractive economies of those countries which controlled their productive systems (the Atlantic countries) produced, since the last quarter of the last century, a differentiation of the economic and social base...
...Cardoso and J.L...
...The autonomous development which characterized the previous stage disappeared and its socio-political aspect, as represented in populism, entered into conflict with the new political structure given the requirements of multinational business...
...On the other hand, Peru, the Central American countries and others entered into a process of total stagnation, in which the land-owning oligarchies instituted military regimes, unmistakably dictatorial in character, for the purpose of continuing to control power and contain the popular pressures that endangered their domination...
...The opposite was true of the Andean and Central American countries, which were unable to link themselves dynamically with the European metropolis until the last third of the 19th century...
...A manufacturing production structure has been created that is destined essentially to produce for the consumer, leaving the traditional export sector to produce for investment...
...It involved, therefore, abandoning the model of "externally-oriented development" based on an export structure specialized in the production and exportation of agricultural and mining products and the importation of manufactured products for the internal market...
...To the contrary, the oligarchy maintained its position after the crisis, as one of the fundamental bases of the State because emerging groups and classes failed to give the State a new character in accordance with their own class interests...
...The social and political structure is modified to the extent that the different classes and political groups are able to impose their interests, their strength and their domination on the whole society...
...monopolizes large scale international and domestic trade and small scale trade at an increasing rate...
...The Cuban example has spread wholesale among the leftist sectors who have until recently been trying unsuccessfully to imitate it...
...Populism, upon achieving control of the unified masses, obscured the dividing lines between the social classes, creating an image of non-conflicting social interests and of a relatively stable and harmonious society...
...2 Realization of the "internally-oriented" model of growth seemed possible after the World Depression of 1929...
...The relations of dependency produced in a given historical context "constitute one of the nuclei of determining factors of the basic tendencies of their existence and change...
...Dependency implies an ideological and political alliance among the dominant classes of both the metropolitan and the peripheral country...
...The university therefore ceases to be dependent on economic development and obeys instead the tide of urban growth...
...The revision of these theories also makes clear the necessity of explaining the internal dynamics of the peripheral nation...
...4 5 The military therefore comes to play an important role in "national defense" and consequently, in the security of the multinational interests...
...The landed-commercial bourgeoisie of the countries most directly linked with the new European metropolitan center were capable of achieving political integration of the societies under.their direct political domination rapidly enough and in various forms and degrees...
...Although almost all of the Latin American countries had to follow the first orientation to a greater or lesser degree, there were only a few who were able to adopt the second...
...Perhaps the greatest benefits of our investment for military aid will result from the training of elected officials and specialists, in our military schools and in the training centers of the United States and abroad...
...in other words, those which followed the process of industrial development after the crisis of 1929...
...Thus, the deterioration of political cohesion among the bourgeois oligarchy deepened and became more evident and critical...
...For this reason it is utopian to speak in terms of the possibilities of "autonomous development" or "national development" in the dependent societies while the same dominant traditional classes or modern allies of the dominant metropolitan class continue to exist...
...the native bourgeoisie lost all possibility of control and of political-economic decision...
...714-5...
...It seems, on examination, that the methods of battle are tending to focus on the popular battles of the urban areas...
...1 7- 5 - In the meantime, the dependent relations have produced the internal structures that will insure the continuation of the expansive metropolitan process and the further entrenchment of peripheral underdevelopment (or dependent capitalism...
...T. Dos Santos, op...
...AK A Finally, the 1929 Depression permitted the weakening of the ties of dependency between the satellite countries and the metropolis, opening possibilities for autonomous development...
...The development of the Latin American liberation movement is in full process...
...In other words, this analysis must comprehend not only the history but also the structure...
...police and the CIA), and also.the famous Argentine "cordobazo" in 1968 which endangered the crumbling regime of Ongania...
...Relevant characteristics of this concentration include the growth of huge industrial plants (economies of scale), the size of the markets, the rate of growth of those markets, and the average number of plants that these businesses decide to operate...
...13, 1969, 91...
...Now the bourgeoisie was stratified under the leadership of the industrial bourgeoisie, which through the State apparatus was controlling the popular classes...
...4 3 Associate capitalism inevitably tends toward a confrontation between the dominant and dominated classes...
...Box 226, Berkeley, California 94701 The NACLA NEWSLETTER is published ten times a year by the North American Congress on Latin America...
...This situation has forced many authors of this school of thought to recognize: the increase in external dependency...
...T. Dos Santos, La crisis de la teoria del desarrollo y las relacione'-de dependencia en America Latina, Santiago, CESO, 1968, p. 4. 14...
...2. A radical refutation of the thesis of "structural dualism" can be found in A. G. Frank, Capitalism and Underdevelopment in Latin America, New York, Monthly Review Press, 1969...
...Consequently, the labor force, rejected by the industrial labor market, has as its only alternative in order to survive to take up the occupations of the tertiary sector, forming an occupational structure deformed by the massiveness of this sector, where street vendors and domestic service abound -- the second characteristic of the new industrialization...
...Part of the so-called middle class is- 11 incorporated into managerial functions or is converted into the salaried servants of big capital...
...It would not be until the end of the century, when these countries became linked to the world market by means of the exploitation of raw materials controlled directly by the metropolis, that the landed bourgeoisie consolidated its power...
...Given the character of twentieth century industrialization, the labor force coming from the countryside is rejected from the industrial labor market...
...Each weakening of the metropolitan center thus represents a possibility for development in the peripheral or dependent satellite country...
...After the Second World War, the "reconstructed" metropolitan economy again sent its capital to Latin America in order to control the manufacturing sector developed by the native industrial bourgeoisie...
...Dependence and Underdevelopment The historical and structural dependency of Latin America has given rise to a particular type of dependent structure necessary for the maintainance of structural underdevelopment...
...The small degree of economic diversification and the often slave-like institutionalized exploitation of labor created a great social disequilibrium, which was reflected in the concentration of power and wealth in Spanish hands...
...On the other hand, the rate of unemployment and underemployment has increased...
...But is an authentic agrarian reform possible in a bourgeois country...
...Why is it that Argentina and Brazil, which arrived at a stage of development during the 1950's, are now stagnating in the midst of military dictatorships...
...I4 It will be necessary, therefore, to turn to Marxist theory of imperialism and colonialism, which explains the internal dynamics of the metropolis...
...These relations are conditioned by "the dependent internal structure of our countries and, moreover, these relations of economic subordination that our societies maintain with the metropolitan interests, are not based merely on the power of the dominant society to impose them," 1 6 but also on their acceptance by the dominant classes of the dependent countries...
...As a result, the bourgeoisie broke into different groups, each lacking sufficient power to dominate the other classes, and a struggle for political control developed between the bourgeoisie and the armies which had emerged after the wars of independence...
...The enclave is a parasitic rather than an organic factor in the dependent economy...
...From the perspective of those who seek an alter...
...6 To the complete neglect of the role played by social class interests in political domination, such analyses often considered economic development as a linear process, as the aggregate sum of new economic variables which lead an economy from the stage of underdevelopment to that of development...
...The radical change in the Latin American society begins...
...Here we can point to the recent failure of Christian Democracy in Chile...
...Social ties, dependent on the growth of the export sector, caused the new groups to complement more than oppose the interests of the landed bourgeoisie...
...The mechanisms of the association of capital -- the form which legitimizes this integration, which not only definitely denationalizes the local bourgeoisie, but also which makes the presence of US...
...Cardoso and Falletto, op...
...The critical revision of these points will result in the recognition of the historical nature of underdevelopment, of the relations between the metropolitan nations and the peripheral nations, of the alliances among the dominant classes, and of the exploitative nature of capitalism itself...
...10025 P.O...
...In this sense, the conquest and colonization did not have a feudal character but were rather the product of the natural development of a country that had broken its ties with the rural economy...
...The foreign exchange necessary to finance the industrial process comes from the export sector and is channeled by the State, thus permitting the import of capital equipment...
...P. Baran and P. Sweezy, El capital monopolico , Mexico, Siglo XXI...
...The industrial bourgeoisie utilizes the necessary foreign exchange without confronting the landed bourgeoisie...
...See the essay by A.G...
...See A. Quijano, op...
...Therefore, the urban sectors were frustrated because they could not become the "replacement elite" during the leadership crisis of the oligarchy...
...In this way, external economies are generate( in our countries...
...See for example A.G...
...Thus, the Latin American industrial bourgeoisie is evolving the idea of autonomous development toward an effective integration with imperialist capital and gives way to a new type of dependency, much more radical than that which previously prevailed...
...The first half of the last century was distinguished by the process of the formation of national states, by conflict between the traditional bourgeoisie (allied to the metropolitan interests) and the weak industrial bourgeoisie and by the move from colonial dependency to another type of dependence: imperialist dependency...
...It is characterized by the high utilization of capital and technology, low utilization of labor, and small influence of the development of the internal market...
...and extends to all types of services...
...Civic-military" action is converted into the watchdog of the bourgeoisie and of the army...
...Subscription price: $5 per year for individuals...
...Between the developed and underdeveloped nations there exists not only a difference in the stage or state of the productive system, but also of function or position within the same international economic structure of production and distribution...
...To this phenomenon is added the loss of bourgeois leadership and control of the worker movement...
...cit., p. 529...
...Since the industrial bourgeoisie failed to make industry the decisive center of the economic system, it 4M \11 .remained dependent on the landed bourgeoisie...
...10 / February 1971 50 C NACLA NEWSLETTER P.O...
...3 8 Outlining the problem, multinational big business, by its high capitalization and technological development, has come to control the national industry, displacing the native bourgeoisie...
...2 3 For the Creole bourgeoisie, an adequate response was political change without social transformation...
...The interpretations of the cause for this sudden change in development have been, for the most part, economic...
...A critique of this situation can be found in O. Ianni, "Sociologia de la sociologia en America Latina," Revista Latinoamericana de Sociologia, 1965: 3. 7. F.H...
...2 5 Structural dependency is an accomodation of our societies to the metropolitan interests and is historical dependency, because it affects the whole process and each one of its parts...
...It follows from this that metropolitan economic interests determine the dependent relations, the social class structure, and political control in the dependent society...
...Simultaneously, the worker movement has continued to develop new methods of fighting against the political system, It is worth-while to remember the Brazilian workerstudent battles against the dictatorship established in 1964, the fight of the Tupamaros in Uruguay (who have demonstrated the absurdity and mental incapacity of the Uruguayan bourgeoisie, advised by the U.S...
...Latin American industrialization did not emerge from a conscious strategy, but rather as a by-product of the uncontrollable series of international events brought about by the collapse of the world market, resulting in the decay of the capacity to import...
...The student mass, representative of the middle class, entrenched in the university and lacking in economic perspectives, abandons the traditional liberal attitude in order to adopt a revolutionary or progressive posture...
...Our countries participate in the process of integration of world capitalism...
...Marini, op...
...The relationship between the metropolitan countries and the peripheral countries is characteristic of the capitalist system...
...It can be demonstrated (and this subject has been treated amply by Baran and Sweezy 3 7 ) that the metropolitan economy changed to an oligarchic monopoly, characterized by a high degree of corporate concentration with its implications of control of capital and technology...
...The economic policy of this period was mainly concerned with balancing payments and maintaining the level of income and employment...
...Frank, op...
...and on the other hand, inevitably, the labor unions were constituted usually as bureaucratic organisms...
...This was expressed in the creation of an internal market, in the process of urbanization, and in the rise of new social groups such as urban bourgeoisie, professionals, merchants, artesans, white-collar workers, and the beginning of a proletariat...
...It ignores the historical character of all social processes and therefore ignores the fact that the experience of the presently developed countries is an historical experience, completely outdated, be it by basic sources of private capital accumulation based on the exploitation of the world market, or by the incorporation of broad masses of workers into industrial production, or because of the importance of internal technological development in those countries.l3 These theoretical and political errors demand a revision of the interpretive schemes for Latin American development...
...The period characterized by autonomous development was ideologically sustained by national-developmentalism and politically by an alliance of classes in which the industrial bourgeoisie and the State were able to control the popular classes...
...That Latin America has no other choice but to confront, sooner or latter -- better sooner than later, the explosive struggle which alone can bring about the liberation of our countries and each one of their men and women...
...Given these factors the popular classes could only be reformist in character...
...Frank, "La inversion extranjera en el subdesarrollo latinoamericano," in Pensamiento Critico, no...
...In this way, the structure of dominant classes of the dependent countries reflects to a large extent, if not entirely, the predominant tendencies of the metropolitan interests...
...cit., pp...
...Considering that Latin America, since the Depression of 1929, has continued to develop a sufficiently ample industrial base -- with a very lucrative and expanding domestic market -- it is logical that this market constituted a favorable arena for the avalanche of U.S...
...Underdevelopment therefore constitutes, in this way, aparticular form of capitalism - dependent capitalism...
...At the end of this period, the dominant class had acquired a new character...
...Therefore, the history of Latin America is marked by four centuries of domination and exploitation...
...Consequently, the U.S...
...This implies a high concentration of capital and technology available only to the conglomerates or multinational enterprises...
...The failure of ECLA occurred in the very heart of its policy of industrial development -- import substitution, The importation of consumer goods has been replaced by the importation of capital goods and intermediary products necessary for the production of those same consumer goods...
...Contradictions and Conflict of Classes At the same time that the dependent economy is being transformed into a satellite, a similar process takes place in the native bourgeoisie, As a result, they lose their legitimacy in power...
...In short, the dependent relations are an aspect of world capitalism and present-day imperialism...
...The exporting sectors of the latter, with national control of the productive system, were converted into leading groups of their class and of their society...
...In this approach development would be the result of the interaction of groups and social classes each of which has its own peculiar type of relation and therefore, different interests and values, and whose opposition, conciliation or transcendance gives life to the socio-economic system...
...cit., p. 86...
...The rise- 9of the populists signified their incorporation into the existing political framework with only relative power of pressure in the internal political system...
...Fourth, the popular classes, limited in their capacity to develop a process of change in the structures, could continue in their organized form only in the measure that they supported the existing institutional order...
...At the end of the eighteenth century and the beginning of the nineteenth, with the important growth of the "Creole class" (native born Latin Americans of Spanish descent) and the consolidation of European industrial development (particularly in England), the Latin American region was summoned to more actively participate in the world market, a market which eco-- 6 nomically favored the Creoles...
...34 The legitimacy that the popular mass gave to the system through the leader or the popular party was the recognition or acceptance of the status quo...
...In this way, this explanation captures the expansive tendency of the metropolitan economy and the further entrenchment of the structure of underdevelopment in the interior of the peripheral country, both as complimentary elements of world economic and political relations...
...H. Jaguaribe, "La asistencia tecnica y el desarrollo nacional," in ibid...
...The hypotheses can be summarized as follows: A. The predominance of big business...
...Urban growth, in its own way, has forced an increase in the number and size of universities precisely at the time of an almost total saturation of the market for professionals, a scarcity of employment opportunity due to economic crisis, and-the political impact of the Cuban Revolution...
...The type of integration and participation in this world market determined the formation of the internal structures and the position of the dominated society within the world capitalist system...
...i- 10 - Changes in the Socio-economic Structure One characteristic of the Latin American economy since the Depression of 1929 is the process of diversification and the growing complexity of the economic structure reflected in the development of secondary and tertiary sectors and the progressive stagnation and crisis in the agrarian economy...
...With control of industry, multinational big business also comes to absorb the banking and business sector...
...The different groups comprising the various classes channelled the social pressures towad an economic but not political modernization...
...The rupture of the Iberian commercial monopoly is imposed therefore as a necessity, unchaining the process of political independence...
...The World Depression and Autonomous Development The outbreak of the World Depression in 1929 marked the end of an historic period and the beginning of a change in the internal situation of the majority of Latin American countries...
...and they fought against the industrial nationalists and defeated them in the civil wars in the 1830's and 1840's between the federalists and the centralists...
...B. Economic concentration under big business...
...These pressures, met as they were by wage increases, permitted the growth of the internal urban market...
...A. Ferrer, La economia argentina, Mexico, FCE, 1963, as quoted in ibid...
...While the first type gave rise to the forms of commercial capitalism, the second molded our economies into the world capitalist system, accentuating the structure of underdevelopment...
...the State, in spite of its relative autonomy, inherited from the previous period, has had to limit its power of action and decision in the policy of development, when confronted with the bourgeois pressures and foreign capitalism...
...L. Vitale, "Latin America: Feudal or Capitalist," in J. Petras and M. Zeitlin (eds...
...in other words, a mere political representative of the metropolitan interests...
...The attempt to build-up the national'economy by means of the "enclave" 2 7 illustrates the change from commercialfinancial metropolitan capital to capital that sought direct control of the productive sectors of the peripheral society, considered strategic for the metropolis...
...Frank, oj...
...It should be pointed out that the analysis is based on the existing tendencies of the relatively more developed countries...
...What were the reasons for such a sudden change...
...Here we find the dynamics for the development of the metropolis and the underdevelopmenltof the peripheral or dependent satellite country...
...F. Weffort, "Clases populares y desarrollo social," Revista Paraguaya de Sociologia, no...
...9 On the other hand, the role that capital and socalled "technical assistance" played was nothing more than the spoliation of our economies because, as in the case of technical assistance, the sources of technology were outside the country and access to them, in many cases, was strictly controlled...
...The peasant movement arose in recent years when big capital, having as a minor partner the landed bourgeoisie, turned against its own apparent interests by carrying out an agrarian reform in an attempt to overcome the agrarian crisis...
...CLA begins with a critique of what we have called "externallyoriented growth" (with the false "feudal-capitalist" connotation) so as to show that the route being adopted was not an emergency solution, dictated by exceptional external circumstances, but rather an imperative in order to continue and accelerate the development of our countries . . .. The conceptions of ECLA provided the ideological shelter which was lacking before, helping to consolidate the positions of the groups engaged in the prosecution of the industrial effort, that is, the interests of the industrial bourgeoisie...
...L.AT de Soc., 1969...
...Frank, op...
...In spite of the processes of economic modernization and agrarian reform, the greatest part of the peasant sector continues to exist on a subsistence level, which results in continuous and everincreasing migration to the cities...
...This stage in Spanish history was characterized by unequal development, expressed in certain feudal institutions and a relatively strong bourgeoisie in contact with external markets...
...Latin America: Reform or Revolution, New York, Fawcett Books, 1968, pp...
...It is only possible to explain the existence and function of the metropolitan countries and the peripheral countries in relation to their relations with each other...
...14 Camilo Torres .15 Is s u e . . The Sea is Boiling...
...Dependent on formative capitalism which impeded the formation of an internal market, the Latin American economic structure can be characterized as a colonial-exporting structure...
...economy is in a process of vertical and horizontal economic integration in a constant state of expansion and which seeks to control new rapidly-growing enterprises and markets with sufficient potential...
...cit., pp...
...The only possibility of expression which remained to them was that determined by their subordinate condition in relation to the State and the populist parties, Third, the popular classes -- led by the non-popular sectors linked to the system -- lost their class identity to the extent that the "social pact" permitted them political action only within fixed limits...
...The capitalistic development of the metropolis was financed by the looting of the colonial economies, the exploitation of their natural riches, labor, and colonial trade...
...Thus the conquest introduced the initial stages of capitalism in Latin America: the exploitation and commercialization of precious metals...
...Thus our countries passed from the stage of national capitalism to that of associated capitalism...
...In summary, the factor of external dependency was not overcome in the process of development and the socalled "international cooperation" or "interdependence" between developed and underdeveloped countries only constituted a fraud destined to develop underdevelopment...
...O. Sunkel, op...
...0 The colonial character of our countries - exporting raw materials and all of their riches to the metropolis - implied the loss of a great part of their income, which impeded the capitalization of their economies...
...Framed within a growing exploitation of the dominated urban and rural sectors of which the greatest beneficiary is foreign capital, class contradictions and conflict tend to become clearer and antagonistic classes tend to line up in a confrontation of capital and labor...
...Structure and process are thus converted into the indispensable elements for all economic and political analysis...
...On the other hand, the crisis of the countryside is being extended into the cities and there the crises become one - the crisis of the whole system...
...3. C. Furtado, La economia latinoamericana desde la conquista iberica hasta la Revolucion Cubana, Santiago, Ed...
...see aso H. Magdoff, The Age of Imperialism, New York, Monthly Review Press, 1969...
...Once independence was obtained, a power struggle arose in the majority of our countries between the different sectors of the Creole bourgeoisie and the armies, which had emerged from the battles for independence...
...Parallel to the change and diversification of the economic structure, a series of socio-political changes were also expected...
...6. In general, until recently Latin American social sciences have demonstrated a complete divorce from the influence of the Anglo-saxon social sciences...
...imperialism, represented by multinational business and characterized by its high degree of capitalization, advanced technology and administrative rationality, comes then to denationalize Latin American industry...
...Espartaco, "La crisis Latinoamericana y su marco externo," in Jaguaribe et al, La dominacion de America Latina, Lima, Moncloa eds., 1968, 12...
...financial and service activities have multiplied...
...5 In this way, countries such as Argentina, Brazil, and Mexico opted for the second alternative and thus were subject to a series of political changes expressed principally in the developmentoriented populism of Peron in Argentina and Vargas in Brazil...
...Its political expression is an ideology that attracts those classes in the metropolitan and peripheral societies who share the same interests...
...Copyright c 1970 by the North American Congress on Latin America, Inc...
...ECLA's political analysis of external dependency implies that the achievement of development is based on the confrontation between all of the classes of the peripheral or dependent society and those of the metropolitan society...
...This cooperation took the form of the introduction into Latin American countries of affiliates of the concerns which, prior to that time, had supplied the market, 1 0 thus permitting the process of denationalization of the same industry...
...By the middle of this decade such possibilities, hopes and optimism vanished, disappearing into the shadows of economic stagnation...
...This system permitted the simultaneous development of both the industrial and the landed bourgeoisie, rather than the emergence of the former out of the destruction of the latter...
...However, the present economic policy, the unequal distribution of income, the interference of the International Monetary Fund through its formulation of pro-entrepreneurial policies, and run-away inflation, all make economic stagnation a real spring-board for social instability...
...Despite the industrial growth experienced in the last thirty years, the industrial sector has not been capable of absorbing the increased supply of manpower which is constantly aggravated by the massive urban growth...
...First, the decadence of the landed bourgeoisie created a vacuum in state power which the industrial bourgeoisie and the middle class were unable to fill...
...All hope of overcoming underdevelopment vanished...
...Marini, op...
...capital...
...Unfortunately, economic studies of Latin America have for the last few years been totally divorced from any socio-political analysis...
...An "enclave" is a dynamic sector in a dependent economy which was formed at the end of the last century under the control of metropolitan capital...
...An agrarian reform can be undertaken only against the land owning oligarchy and this implies its disappearance...
...The result is that the rhythm of urbanization is greater than the creation of jobs in the industrial sector...
...C. Furtado, op...
...This whole period was marked by the growth of strong nationalism and accelerated industrialization.32 The New Character of the State The oligarchical leadership crisis, which signified its displacement from the center of power, failed to totally remove the oligarchy from the decision-making process...
...This stratification of the bourgeoisie resulted from the diversification of the productive apparatus reflected in new interconnections among the various sectors (landowning, mining, mercantile, financial, industrial) of the bourgeoisie.35 The State and the industrial bourgeoisie (both national-developmentalist), in order to carry out their policy of industrial development, sought the support of the popular classes...
...In this way, there has been a growth in the...
...poverty becomes more acute and the opulence of the dominant class is concentrated in ever smaller power elites...
...Underdevelopment cannot be considered in this sense as a stage prior to capitalism but rather as a consequence of the expansive process of capitalism...
...Hardly had the urban sectors called into question the legitimacy of the oligarchic bourgeois system, when it became evident that they lacked the structural conditions to replace the established regime...
...Investments were directed toward the diversification of production so "that a more diversified domestic supply would satisfy the requirements of a demand which had previously been satisfied mostly by imports...
...The development of the colonial structure until the eighteenth century slowed down the transformation of the colonial-exporting system, which concentrates wealth in the hands of a few, thus preventing the development of production for the internal market, the elevation of technical levels and the emergence of social groups connected with the development of the internal economy...
...C. Furtado, Estancamiento subdesarrollo en America Latina, Bs...
...Raul Prebisch, ex-Secretary General of ECLA, pointed out as early as 1950 that the vital element for the economy of Latin American countries...
...cit., pp...
...The political system was that of an oligarchy with a bourgeoisoligarchic state...
...That is the moment when the exploited classes fulfill their historic role...
...they are the study of the internal dynamics of the dependent nation in its relations with the metropolis, and principally, they are the extension of imperialism into the inner-functionings of the dependent society, determining and/or conditioning its internal structure...
...To this effect, Robert S. McNamara, the U.S...
...2 6 With the consolidation of the agricultural-extractive structure, the dominant classes of our countries took on the character of a landed bourgeoisie which controlled the means of production...
...A. Quijano, "Dependencia, Cambio Social y Urbanizacion," Revista Mexicana de Sociologia, Mexico, 1968, pp...
...p. cit., p. 265...
...On the other hand, this alliance implies that each change of interests in the dominant metropolitan class calls for a profound realignment or change in the dominant classes of the dependent countries...
...The proletariat, without the bourgeois leadership which characterized it in the previous period, is unionized and organized -- under the direction of the leftist movement -- as a means of pressure and struggle against the political machinery...
...Then, an "alliance" occurs among all of the dependent bourgeois sectors and the contradiction among them becomes a "secondary contradiction vis a vis that one which exists between big capital and medium or petit capital...
...STRUCTURAL DEPENDENCY We have observed that the fundamental error of the developmentalist in considering relations between the metropolitan and peripheral nations was to consider dependency as an external factor expressed in terms of economic relations...
...The model which replaced it was that of "internally-oriented development" based on the expansion and development of the manufacturing sector...
...This phenomenon has generated, on the one hand, the formation of a reserve labor force...
...and along with these, public administration activities have diversified and the political-administrative machinery of the State has grown stronger above all in areas related to economic life...
...On the one hand, satisfaction of the interests of the dominant classes of both the metropolitan and peripheral countries permits and encourages the continuation intact of the system itself...
...The relations of dependency and the structural character of their society were thereby modified...
...1 1 the negative role of international technical help (as found in the so-called "pilot projects" that have been of benefit mostly to the industrial sector and within this sector, to certain businesses -- mostly foreignl 2 ); political failure, as represented in the fall of reformist regimes and the appearance of military regimes as the supporters of the current process of making satellites of our economies...
...8. A. Pinto, "Aspectos politicos del desarrollo economico Latinoamericano," in C. Veliz (ed...
...Its relation with foreign capital was thereafter political and not economic...
...T hi Dependency: A Latin American View...
...the integrated capitalist development thus increases the divorce between the bourgeoisie and the popular masses, intensifying the over-exploitation to which these masses are subjected and denying them that which represents their most elemental redress -- the right to work...
...This limited horizon for economic and social development explains to a large extent the experience of the American colonial world...
...526-30...
...The ECLA model for Latin American economic development failed, therefore, because of its conception of the phenomenon of dependency, and because of its formal and ahistorical conceptualization of development...
...34-7...
...The only way to obtain this political autonomy and thus to arrive at the real possibilities for development (a phenomenon historically frustrated by the capitalist system) is by means of radical change in the structures that have brought about and maintain underdevelopment and therelations of dependence...
...E. Falletto, "Incorporacion de los sectores obreros al proceso de desarrollo," Revista Mexicana de Sociologia, 1966, pp...
...is the tansition from economic development spurred on mainly by continuous increase in the production of the export sector, toward the achievement of a type of growth whose main dynamic nucleus becomes the expansion of manufacturing activities oriented toward the establishment of internal demand.' At the level of economic structure, this thesis implied abandoning and replacing the external stimuli of growth (the world market) with the stimuli of the internal market...
...The middle class, by aspiring to an alliance with the landed bourgeoisie, relegated itself to a secondary position...
...The intelligentsia paid by the establishment has come to see the military as the dynamic agent of change and development...
...Hypothesis on the New Dependency The new character of dependency brought about a new reality in Latin American underdevelopment, In this respect, a series of new hypotheses can emerge...
...5. A. Pinto, "Politica de industrializacion en America Latina" in his book Politica Desarrollo, Santiago, Ed...
...Thus they were not capable of constructing a new political system in accordance with their class interests...
...2 87 One author has aptly pointed out: In those dependent countries, structured on the base of big property interests dedicated to exportation, the middle sectors generally do not find favorable conditions for the exercise of autonomous productive functions...
...4 4 .. i.F i fib_ :'s < S -- 12 - Later, the same McNamara asserted...
...Dependency, Social Classes and Power The understanding of the nature of these dependent relations as conditioners of the internal structure of the dependent society is made evident, therefore, by the study of the internal and external relations of the metropolis with the peripheral nations...
...Thus, each country would reach the stage of self-sustaining development...
...C. Monopolistic domination of the market...
...143-5...
...Leftists, for their part, have moved beyond the idea of the national front or of a developmentalist alliance which once supported the counterfeit nationalist bourgeoisie, to the idea of revolutionary change by means of armed struggle...
...The New Industrialization Industrialization and the agrarian crisis are strongly linked in Latin American development...
...Universitaria, 1969, 1. 20...
...U,S...
...LATIN AMERICAN UNDERDEVELOPMENT Latin America is not now nor has it ever been feudal...
...Finally, to this process of political mobilization is added the peasant movement, which has a purely political character...
...The "revolution in the revolution" to use the words of Debray, seems not to have yielded the fruits that were expected...
...this has permitted a salary freeze, thus increasing the level of business profits...
...4. A.G...
...The bourgeoisie in these countries, after their incorporation into the power structure, were converted into satellite bourgeoisie...
...But, when confronted with insurgency, imperialism and the Latin American bourgeoisie have responded with violence, demonstrating their military capacity for counter-insurgency...
...This means the study of the general dialectic of the world capitalist system...
...What is implied then, by this political picture which can now be seen in Latin America...
...First, the rise and socio-political integration of the popular classes was realized from the top down -- in other words, from the level of State structures, implying a manipulative relationship -- serving, in the meantime, as a mass to be maneuvered politically for the legitimization of the State...
...Consequently, structural dependency is the concrete manifestation of the relations of the capitalist system in the inner-functionings of the dependent society...
...cit., p, 64, 29...
...In other words, during the European mercantilist expansion of the sixteenth century, Latin America played a role complementary to European capitalism...
...Foreign Relations Committee, Hearings Foreign Assistance Act of 1962, 87 Cong., 2nd Sess., p. 69...
...As., EUDEBA 1966, p. 16...
...The situation of underdevelopment was produced historically when the expansion of commercial capitalism and then world capitalism linked to the same market various economies which, besides presenting different degrees of differentiation of the productive system, come to occupy different positions in the global structure of the capitalist system...
...This bourgeoisie has had no other choice but to convert itself into a 'minor associate" of monopolistic capitalism...
...If theory justified the role of the industrial bourgeoisie in Latin American development, reality contradicts the developmentalist claims for it...
...In this sense, the theory of dependency is part of the theory of imperialism and colonialism, and all of these theories are derivatives of Marxism...
...Up until then, the development of the industrial sector was a reflection of exports...
...We should remember the wage benefits given to the popular masses by Peron in Argentina and Vargas in Brazil...
...It is unnecessary to harp on the usefulness of having in key positions men who know by experience the American way of doing things and how Americans think...
...This was possible because the bourgeoisie had inherited control of the productive base from the colonial period and because the expansive dynamics of the English economy focused on provision of raw materials to the metropolitan economy and not on capital investment destined to control the productive base of the peripheral societies...
...The Creole bourgeoisie understood that the businesses of the Spanish Crown would become their own...
...IV, No...
...This economic growth seemed to arrive at a stage of "self-sustaining" growth between the beginning and the middle of the decade of the 50's...
...IV, No 10 / February 1971 Published monthly, except May-June and July-August, when it is published bi-monthly, at 160 Claremont Ave., New York 10027...
...Dependency is not simply an external economic phenomenon, but also a political phenomenon...
...Weffort, op...
...afterwards, industrialization would be induced mainly by structural tensions provoked by the decline or insufficient growth of the exporting sector.3 It was in this period that the total amount of foreign capital in our countries diminished, because of the metropolitan crisis in 1929, the contraction of 1937, and the Second World War, thus weakening the dependent relations of our countries with the metropolis...
...on the one hand, an accentuated dependency of the unions on the public powers, which would affect the orientation of the workers' movement...
...Minimum contribution for one-year subscription: $5.00...
...Commercial restrictions imposed by the Spanish Crown on the American colonies, industrial advances, and ever-increasing control of maritime transport by the English (derived from a policy of open ports in the Latin American countries), deepened the conflict between Spain and the combination of Creole bourgeoisie and English interests...
...It is with respect to the nature of the process of industrialization that the Depression of 1929 constitutes a model of great significance...
...This presupposes a definite structure of relations of domination.18 It is clear that it is the integration of these economies into the world market as colonies for exploitation which initiated Latin American underdevelopment at the same time that it accelerated the expansive process of the metropolitan countries...
...The State unionized the mass of the working classes presenting itself as an arbiter of conflicts yet acting with an authoritarian character, It thus acquired new functions and increased its intermediary role vis a vis all of the social classes...
...In this sense, the role of national development is falsely attributed to the industrial bourgeoisie which in the 1950's, and even more so in the decade of the 1960's, has given in to the pressures and attractions of becoming associates or partners of world capitalism...
...Frank, "CEPAL: politica del subdesarrollo," Pensamiento Critico, no...
...The change from mercantile capitalism to commercial-financial capitalism established our character as exporters of raw materials and importers of manufactured goods, which was consolidated by the defeat of the national interests...
...In this crisis of hegemony, the populist leader or party played the function of intermediary between the dominant groups and the masses...
...These included the democratization of the state, the predominance of a developmentalist national bourgeoisie, the expansion of the middle sectors, the redistrubution of income, the relaxation of the class structure, and the elimiNORTH AMERICAN CONGRESS ON LATIN AMERICA (NACLA) Vol...
...cit., p. 77...
...From this we can see the essentially political character of independence...
...Cardoso and Falletto, op...
...1 T h I S NACLA Mailbag...
...The development of the popular movements and the defeat of the declining bourgeoisie, supported by imperialism and the armed forces, make the revolutionary struggle a hard ob that can only be fulfilled in the measure to which the masses or the revolutionary classes achieve greater cohesion, organization and direction...
...The alternatives become clear -- repression or revolution, exploitation or liberation...
...As long as these are not in evidence, the peasants will have to support the revolutionary movements...
...On the other hand, only comprehension of the evolution and the mechanisms that characterize the world capitalist economy will provide an adequate framework for the location nd analysis of the Latin American problematical Dependency therefore becomes a system of interdependencelS among the countries of the capitalist system...
...industrial-manufacturing activities of production...
...The friendship of these men is invaluable...
...It reduces economic development to a combination of interrelated variables that can be manipulated at any time...
...If the first important characteristic of industrialization is its un-intentional character, the second is its dependence on the landed bourgeoisie...
...Autonomous Development, Populism and Popular Classes 33 Populism appeared after World War I and corresponded to the changing nature of the economy and the State, The political impasse generated by the enduring position of the landed bourgeoisie as well as the social tensions created by the urbanization and industrialization, marked growing possibilities for autonomous capitalist development and political democracy...
...Finally, the State's capital promotion schemes fail or lose their raison d'etre in the new structure of imperialist integration and end up being integrated into the policy of multinational business...
...This meant...
...However, dependency constitutes a factor both external and internal to peripheral societies...
...This dependency encompasses, as we have already seen, all of the relations of the institutional order of the societies involved...
...Their own countries then appoint these students as instructors when they return home, They are the future leaders of their people, the men who have knowledge which they transmit to their own groups...
...Tne State -- adopting a conciliatory tack -- initiated the so-called unionization from the top down...
...Now we can state the basic features of populism...
...cit., p. 109...
...3 6 Thus was formed what has been represented as the "popular developmentalist alliance...
...The corporate concentration in the metropolitan economy must be studied carefully in order to understand the factors which determine the nature and relations of this economy with our countries...
...This process continued during the contraction of 1937, the Second World War and the subsequent reconstruction through the beginning of the 1950's...
...There occurs, therefore, the vertical and horizontal integration of the dependent economy under metropolitan control which permits big business to increase its level of surplus value and return it to the heart of the metropolis...
...Agricultural and mining activity for export had a mercantilist character...
...Their participation in the developmentalist alliance allowed the popular classes two kinds of leverage: (1) pressure on the structures of the State and (2) pressure on the structures of the market...
...until about 1960 military assistance programs for Latin America were oriented toward hemispheric defense...
...The interests of multinational business assume a central position within the entire scope of the dependent ruling class...
...3 1 The social sector responsible for the development of industrialization was the so-called industrial bourgeoisie or national development-oriented bourgeoisie...
...Foreign control over the ruling class wipes out the distinction between national and foreign capital, converting them into secondary aspects of the contradiction "between big capital and the whole society...
...cit., p, 73...
...Frank, Dependencia economica, estructura de clases y politica del subdesarrollo en America Latina, (IX Cong...
...NACLA NEWSLETTER Vol...
...Economic Commission for Latin America) since 1950, have argued and continue to argue that the dynamic base for Latin American development lies in each country's potential to increase and accelerate its process of industrialization by means of import substitution and the creation of a basic industry...
...The new character of the State resulting from this class realignment was reflected in the incapacity of all classes to bring the society toward a new institutional construction...
...native to stagnation, an alternative which does not actually exist in our economies, 4 2 the radicalization of the dominated classes, and in particular the middle class, can be avoided only by improving the status of these dominated classes...
...finances and controls agricultural production for world and domestic markets...
...The class structure, parallel to the process of economic diversification, has undergone certain changes although not of the same intensity or degree, but which also indicate a diversification and complexity in the structure...
...7 With this in mind, we will try in this paper to present briefly some theoretical concepts developed in Latin American social science during the last few years and then apply them to the Latin American process since 1929...
...Therefore, it becomes necessary to pass beyond these partial interpretive schemas, and adopt a global analysis of the process that includes the economic, social and political spheres within an historical framework...
...The run-away inflationary spiral, the restriction of salaries, the greater exploitation and the greater political awareness ("concientizacion") parallel to the political repression that the dominated classes suffer -- the combination of factors makes Latin American society a continent truly on the verge of explosion...
...But in the same way that "community development," the agrarian reform of the Alliance for Progress, and technical and economic help have demonstrated their failure in developing in our societies, "civic-military" action (more military than civic) is now demonstrating its own inoperativeness The hunger of the peasant does not end with the construction of a highway or with nutritional aid but rather with authentic agrarian reforms...
...The new character of the State defined in these structural conditions was that of a "State of Compromise" in which the different classes, maintaining certain "political autonomy," could not go beyond the limits of their pact...
...Ibid...
...Generally, only the relatively more developed and/or larger countries found themselves in a situation of being able to combine both...
...E. Political and syndical organization of the interests of big business...
...This explains why populism has been one of the forms of cooptation of the working-class sectors...
...Imperialism and Revolution In order to understand the new nature of the Latin American process after the second post war period, it is necessary to understand the changes that have occured in the heart of the North American metropolis...
...The emergence of guerrilla movements in the countryside, inspired by the "foquismo" theory, has demonstrated their weakness in reaching their goals...
...Second class postage paid at New York, New York.- 3 - ECLA AND DEVELOPMENTALISM In its document entitled, El Estudio Economico, published in 1949, this organization explained and justified the industrial process that was occurring in our countries after the 1929 world crisis...
...cit., p. 10...
...4 1 In the midst of the dependent society a process of polarization based on class interests is generated...
...A. Quijano, op...
...As a result of and in reaction to the appearance of capitalist enterprises, the peasant becomes a unionized proletarian or small proprietor intent on land reform or, alternatively, processes of politicization (controlled usually by radical groups...
...As a result, no class or social sector developed into a new leadership class capable of fully controlling state power after the Depression of 1929...
...D. The emergence of a new managerial class...
...C. Furtado, op...
...27, 1969, p. 71...
...Obstaculos para la transformacion de America Latina, Mexico, FCE, 1969, p. 3. 9. 0. Sunkel, "Politica nacional de desarrollo y dependencia externa," in A. Bianchi (ed...
...Why is it that Latin America in general, in spite of the Alliance for Progress and general and regional integration, is now undergoing an unrestrainable process of impoverishment and stagnation, with no prospects of a policy of national development...
...In other words, the relations of dependency are the incorporation of the metropolitan structure into that of the peripheral nation...
...All sectors of the bourgeoisie enjoyed and divided the power: a choice had to be made within this "state of compromise" - in which no united class reigned supreme - between autonomous or national development...
...This situation, in general terms, continued while economic development maintained its rhythm of growth and the ties of dependency remained weak, i.e., until the metropolitan crisis had been overcome...
...The industrial bourgeoisie definitively renounced its developmentalist policy and chose to participate in the process of capitalism's world-wide integration...
...In summary, each change in the interests and in the policy of the metropolitan country has produced and continues to produce a similar process in the inner workings of the dependent society...
...We repeat, the revolutionary movement appears to be involved in self-criticism and re-examination of the political-military tactics...
...The reorientation of society was manifested in the process of industrialization, the intensification of urbanization, the crisis in oligarchic power, the increase in the social bases of power, the rise of the popular classes, the relative "democratization" of the State, etc...
...Universitaria, 1968, p, 32...
...Finally, as has already been pointed out, the ECLA model is formal and ahistorical...
...F. Control of the State and political life through adaptation to the interests of big business...
...They were, of course, those in which prior growth had established the minimum conditions of an already existent capacity for production, private capital accumulation, labor force, size of market, development of the infrastructure, degree of urbanization, a government with some degree of national autonomy in its decision-making and, last but not least, intensity of social pressure...
...The first, by its actual character, is incapable of absorbing the new labor force, thus aggravating the structural problems of employment,40 Industrialization in our countries, because of its dependency on technology imported from the metropolis, is characterized by the intensive use of capital and not by the manual labor which characterized the European industrialization of the last century...
...the peculiarity of populism arose in the conditions of a political vacuum as a form of domination in which no class had the leadership and precisely because no class was capable of assuming it...
...internal and external trade has expanded...
...Both autonomous and national development involve the process of industrialization...
...the political failure of the industrial bourgeoisie...
...The Latin American countries that opted for the way of industrialization underwent a clear economic growth due to the internal and external conditions of this period (1929-50), but without the political changes necessary to make themselves autonomous...
...Because of the introductory nature of this article, we will not try to expand this theme...
...This change is represented in the decline in the land-owning groups, growth of the industrial, financial and commercial bourgeoisie, the growth of the middle class, increase in the working class and in the marginal urban sectors...
...As it became clear that there was no threat of significant overt external agression against Latin America, emphasis shifted to internal security...
...The colonization of America began when Spain was in transition from feudalism to an incipient, essentially commercial stage of capitalism...
...cit., p. 350...
...In order to arrive at an explanation for these relations we must choose a perspective of analysis of the concrete conditions and of the interests of the different classes and social sectors, and their reciprocal relations...
...The second, by increasing the rate of migration to the cities, increases the urban population and encourages the growth of slums such as the Peruvian barriadas, the Chilean calampas and the Brazilian favelas...
Vol. 4 • February 1971 • No. 10
